Discuss and Examine the Free movement of Lawyers to provide services Assignment

Discuss and Examine the Free movement of Lawyers to provide services and establish a practice in another Member State of the Eur - Assignment Example Heremans (2010) indicated that by ratifying several laws the EU’s actions are geared towards integrating the national systems for legal practice within its jurisdiction. This paper is aimed at assessing the structures guiding the legal practice within the larger European Union. The main challenges facing the regulations and the implications of legal practice within the territory are also covered in this paper. In understanding these issues, the paper analyses the Treaty upon which the European Union is anchored, EU Directives on legal practices within the region, and authorities issued by the European Court of Justice (ECJ). This paper focuses on movement of legal professionals within the European Union to provide services. History of EU Regulations Hill (1995) noted that the establishment of the statutory structures for legal practice within the EU is a process that has lasted for many decades. The issue first arose in 1957 when various countries within the region signed the EU Treaty (Hill, 1995). The then Article 59 provided for the freedom to legal practice within the territory. ... Article 50 also states that without partiality to the letter and spirit of Article 43, which confers upon EU citizens the right of establishment, a legal specialist may briefly render services in another country where the client is based, under the national legal structures of the place of service. Article 43 covers actual carrying out of economic activity in different EU Member States everlastingly by integrating into the economic system of that state (Tucker, 1997). Regardless of its unifying foundation, Giesen (2005) has noted that the EU Treaty is only the universal legal structure guiding the free movement of people and services across states within the EU and falls short of providing the finer details of service provision. In light of the EU legal limits, the invocation of the freedom of establishment is dependent upon secondary laws, which are passed to complement EU regulation of service provision in particular fields (Hill, 1995). ECJ Authorities At first, the issue of wheth er a legal practice needed to be excluded from the universal liberal clauses supporting freedom to offer services and the establishment of one’s self was contentious (Hill, 1995). Notably, the EC Treaty provides for exceptions only where freedom to render services and establish oneself may have an impact on execution of national government policy (Giesen, 2005). But Guild (1999) noted that the activities of legal professionals have no bearing on the implementation of government policy. In light these ambiguities the ECJ has delivered landmark rulings in favour of economic integration. Previous verdicts of the European Court of Justice (ECJ) have been imperative in setting aside the legal hindrances imposed by member states on individuals who are willing to enjoy their right to

Leading a Diverse Workforce Essay Example for Free

Leading a Diverse Workforce Essay 1.0Introduction This report is an introduction to the circumstances of the diverse workforce. It explains the causes of diverse workforce leads into past, present trends. Where focus has centred on the consequences, there are some advantageous and disadvantageous outcomes which lead to â€Å"pay-off† of the organization. Therefore, discussion moves forward to the difficulties that managers would face and the management solution. The report concludes with a discussion 2.0Causes of Diverse Workforce â€Å"Workforce diversity is a workforce consisting of a broad mix of workers from different racial and ethnic background of different ages and genders, and of different domestic and national culture† (Naik, 2012). The emergency and development of diverse workforce is basically the result of globalisation, which is the current developing trend of the world. To meet the challenge of globalisation, it is extremely necessary for an organisation to have a diversity strategy than a domestic one (Naik, 2012). The diverse strategy enables the organisation to enlarge their customer base and market since the various backgrounds of employees make it much easier to communicate with global customers. There is also another cause of diverse workforce which is the requirement of the law and responsibility for the society (McInnes, 2013). There are usually some disadvantaged people in our communities who may suffer discrimination and a lot of hardships. In consider of that, the government has made anti-discrimination legislation to protect the rights of those disadvantaged people. Therefore, the organisation recruits people such as women, aboriginal and disabled individuals to form a diverse workforce as abid ance by the law and as a social obligation. 3.0Past and Present Trends The trends of the workforce diversity in the organisation are dramatically difference between past and present, for the aspect of gender, generation and cultural. As the globalisation is prevalent around the world, especially in Australia where the place is encouraging multiculturalism and immigration, there are more organisation engage the workers with different  cultural, it makes the workplace more diverse, such as the Vodafone and ANZ Bank. For example, ANZ Bank started to promote a diverse workplace since 1990s. They believed that the staff with a vibrant and diverse background and life experience can help to forge strong connections with all their customers. Besides, in the past, the women in the workplace were automatically assigned to temporary or part-time jobs because their first priority was taking care of their families. It shows that most of the gender work in an organisation is male. However, Department of Education and Early Childhood Development (2011, p.3) indicate s that â€Å"The proportion of women in the Australian workforce and in leadership positions is increasing since 1960 with 52% and compared with 70% in 2009†. Nowadays, most women tend to work as a permanent worker and do not see it as temporary because women are become more independent. Therefore, the gender diverse in the workplace has a huge change from homogeneous to diverse, thus the organisation have been learning to treat women as the equals of men and discrimination against female employees are now against the law. 4.0Consequences of Diverse Workforce 4.1The advantages of having diverse workforce First of all, it can increase an organisation’s creativity, flexibility and innovativeness (Cole, 2013). More fresh ideas and different perspectives could be provided by diverse employees from various cultural backgrounds and mind-sets since they are more willing to think outside of the box (Belcher, 2014). Secondly, the diverse workforce can attract more different customers as the employees are capable to communicate across cultural boundaries which therefore give the organisation a competitive edge and help meet the needs and wants of globalisation better (Belcher, 2014). What is more, the image and reputation of an organisation could be enhanced through a group of diverse people and then retention can be improved because it appeals to some other competent talents (Cole, 2013). Loyalty of employees would also be reinforced since they are in a fair and friendly working environment. Last but not lease, the proper utilisation of diverse workforce will result in greater producti vity (Belcher, 2014). 4.2 The disadvantages of having diverse workforce In fact, diverse can lead to a conflict and some negative effect. Jensen (2011, para. 10) demonstrates that â€Å"Communication is the key to breaking down the cultural; barriers between people†. As people with different cultural may easily have a communication problem, they will always cause misunderstanding which will harm working relationships and damage working environment and atmosphere. Therefore, a company ne beds a well planning to engage different background, culture, experience, ability and age of employees, and provide an effective policy on every member of the workplace. 5.0The â€Å"Pay-off† The advantages and disadvantages of diverse workforce are heatedly debated. As we mentioned above, a diverse workforce can assist an organisation in many aspects such as working environment, productivity and creativity. Generally speaking, a diverse workforce enables an organisation to be much better. Though a diverse workforce would cause some misunderstanding, the problems will be solved as long as the managers are able to handle it. Eventually, with the development of the diverse workforce, it turns out that the benefits outweigh the costs. 6.0Challenges for managers The change of workforce requires leaders to pay more attention to adjust policies for diverse employees made up of ages, genders, nationalities and more. Meanwhile, employees also need to know how to work and communicate with people who are different with dissimilar cultural background. â€Å"Diversity management practices are specific activities, programs, policies, and any other processes designed to improve management of diversity via communication, education and training, employee-involvement, career management, accountability and cultural change† (Cieri, Costa, Pettit, Buttigieg, 2008, p.6). The people with various cultural backgrounds a typical kind of diversity. They could forge strong connections with customers coming from diverse background; however, it might cause conflicts and misunderstandings because of their different understandings for things. In this case, in order to make full use of this kind of employees and force a nice working environment, managers are su pposed to deliver the concept of accepting and understanding other cultures and let the employees share  cultural value. Multigenerational team is another kind of the diverse workforce. Because of backgrounds, circumstances or the different education level, multigenerational workforce is much easier to bring about conflicts and misunderstandings. As a result, the function of leaders becomes significant and essential. They analyse and manage conflicts, organise all the work. More importantly, leaders know what kind of job each generation is qualified. For example, the younger generation is more likely to do the creative work while the older generation is better to do with the management. Conclusion As it enters the 21st century, workforce diversity has become an essential business concern. Diversity could be a positive factor to contribute to the local business, but misunderstanding is a major barrier. Australia as a developed country is attracting people from all over the world to come for study and work. Therefore, the government should make a comprehensive policy to improve diverse workforce issue, such as the working condition and foreign workers’ permission standard of the entrance system in Australia. Person with disability is a typical kind of diversity. They might have achievements that the normal people could not reach. Although they are not as efficient as others, they might have specific achievements that normal people could not reach. In this case, in order to make full use of them, leaders give this group more welfare as well as set up particular facilities to assistant them to work more efficiently and effectively. Reference list: Cieri, H., Costa, C., Pettit, T. Buttigieg, D. (2008). Managing a Diverse Workforce: Attraction and Retention of Older Workers. Retrieved from http://www.buseco.monash.edu.au/mgt/research/acrew/ageing-workforce-wp-2008.pdf Department of Education and Early Childhood Development (2011). Human Resources: Managing Diverse and Inclusive Workplaces, p.1-9. Retrieved from www.education.vic.gov.au/hrweb/Document/Mange-Diverse-Inclusive-Workplace.pdf Jensen, M. (2011). Special Issue on: Impacts of Diversity in the Workplace: Maintaining Open Communication. Aviary Group. Retrieved from www.aviarygroup.ca/special-issue-on-impacts-of-diversity-in-the-workplace-maintaining-open-communication/ McInnes, R. (2013). Workforce Diversity: Changing the Way You Do Business. Diversity World. Retrieved from http://www.diversityworld.com/Diversity/workforce_diversity.htm Naik, P. (n.d.). Challenge for Business Survival-Managing Workforce Diversity. IOSR Journal of Business and Management. Retrieved from http://www.iosrjournals.org/iosr-jbm/papers/7th-ibrc-volume-2/15.pdf

Determining Ethanol in Fermented Glutinous Rice

Determining Ethanol in Fermented Glutinous Rice 1.0 Introduction Fermented glutinous rice is a popular dessert among Malaysian consumers. It consist of carbohydrate such as rice and it need to be fermented for a few days until the glucose have been converted into the ethanol, carbon dioxide and energy whereas it signs is when the taste is sweet flavor. Cassava also can be fermented. Both of dishes served mostly in Southeast Asia. When the processes are completed, commonly the fermented glutinous rice will be wrapped in banana leaves. During the fermentation process, it most often done by a product called ‘ragi’. However, the consumption of fermented glutinous rice had rise the halal issue among the Muslim community. It is because the ethanol content that is produced during the fermentation is 5% which is similar to the concentration of ethanol in alcoholic beverages such as beers. As we know, the value of alcohol can be contained in the food that had been stated by JAKIM is 0.01% only. As we know, when a lot of alcohol are consumed, i t can affect our health and can caused death. There are many analytical methods that had been studied by researchers to determine the alcohol contained in food. Thus, FTIR spectroscopic had been chosen based on the easiest, low time consuming and low cost for determination of alcohol in fermented glutinous rice. Thus, it can give a contribution by providing the alcohol content for the sake of Muslim. 2.0 Rice The staple food for nearly two-thirds of the world’s population is rice (Oriza sativa L.). According to Arendt (2013), in 2010, China, India, Indonesia, Bangladesh, Vietnam and Myanmar alone provided more than 75% of the world’s total rice production. As we know, the lowest protein content of all the cereals is rice but it also highly nutritious among others. It is rich in carbohydrates. There are many ways that it can be consumed by the consumers. For instance, in the form of puffed rice, noodles, snack foods and fermented sweet rice. To make bakery products, sauces, infant foods, breakfast cereals, alcoholic beverages and vinegar, it also can be used. 2.1 Fermentation Fermentation is one of the natural processes. According to Theresa (2014), when organisms convert nutrients for example carbohydrate such as starch and sugar into an acid (lactic acid and acetic acid) or an alcohol, it is called as energy-yielding anaerobic metabolic process which is occurs in fermentation. For instances, to obtain energy, yeast will perform fermentation by converting the sugar into the alcohol. Many people all around the world use fermentation to produce products such as wines, cheese and beers. It is also known as one of the historical biotechnological processes. 2.2 Fermented Glutinous Rice Tapai or also known as fermented glutinous rice is one of the Malaysian favorite dessert. It is come from Indonesia and Malaysia. Actually it is sour and sweet alcoholic paste, have a very pleasant aroma and it also can be used directly as a food or in traditional recipe. Normally, it is wrapped with rubber tree leaves or banana leaves. It can be made from carbohydrate sources such as cassava, glutinous rice or white rice. It have to undergo fermentation process which is performed by many types of moulds including Rhizopus oryzae, Aspergillus oryzae, Rhizopus oryzae or Mucor species, and including yeast for example Saccharomycopsis fibuliger, Endomycopsis burtonii and others,along with the bacteria. Besides, tapai also can be used to produce alcoholic beverages. Figure 1: example of fermented glutinous rice 2.3 Preparation Of Fermented Glutinous Rice To produce fermented glutinous rice, the ingredient needed is glutinous rice, yeast and sugar. The procedures are as follow: The glutinous rice was washed and soaked it overnight Glutinous rice will be cooked . After it had been cooked well, we need to cool it. After it has cooled, the yeast was pounded and then sprinkled it on the top of cooked rice. sugar was mixed with water and sprinkle each layer of rice with water to start the fermentation The rice was packed in layers into a tight container. Each of the layer was sprinkled with some sugar water to allow the fermentation proces. It will take about 2 days for fermentation occurred. After 2 days, there will be a bit liquid in the bottom of the container. At this time, the fermentation is complete. The liquid which collects at the bottom of container is called brem (rice wine). Originally it have a low alcohol content after fermentation in a few days but if it continued fermented, the alcohol content will increase. Yeast will carried out both anaerobic respiration and aerobic respiration. In the fermentation in of yeast, anaerobic respiration is occurred which is the yeast will secrete the enzyme zymase (Ali et al, 2012). According to Ali et al (2012), this enzyme will hydrolyse glucose to form the ethanol, energy and carbon dioxide in the absence of the oxygen Glucose → Ethanol + Carbon Dioxide + Energy The enzyme can speed up the fermentatation process and only a small amount of enegy used. Therefore, in ethanol there is a large amount of energy stored as chemical energy due to the incomplete broken down of glucose in anerobic respiration. 3.0 The Importance of Determination of Alcohol In western countries, there are a lot of alcoholic beverages for example beers, wines and distilled spirit drinks. A drink that typically containing below 60% v/v of ethyl alcohol is known as an alcoholic beverage (Gallignani et al,2005). There are three main classes of alcoholic beverages which are wines, beers and distilled spirit. Ryan (2014) stated that the alcoholic beverages which are made from germinated barley (malt), water, yeast and hops are known as beers while alcoholic beverages that produced by the fermentation of fresh grapes and grains for example rice are called as wines. The distilled spirituous beverages that contained 15% of alcohol or above and made from tubers, grain, fruit or sugar cane are known as spirit. But it is clearly that it is forbidden for Muslims to consume it as we know the alcohol content that exist in the beverages. On the other hand, in Malaysia we are not consuming the alcohol in the alcoholic beverages but we are consuming alcohol in the food product without realized about it. As stated above, alcohol can be produced naturally in some product that we consumed in our daily life such as soy sauce, fermented cassava and fermented glutinous rice that also become the Malaysian favorite food especially during the celebrations. Besides, there are also laboratories or specialized factory that produced ethanol artificially for the processing of various consumer products. Generally, the issue of the existence of alcohol in food is still been debated until today in Malaysia. The confusion is not only faced by the society but it also faced by the academicians and scholars. Glutinous fermented rice seems to have ethanol content higher than had been stated by JAKIM. Compared to the others natural product like soy sauce, the alcohol content in the fermented glutinous rice is about 5% of ethanol. Table 1: Alcohol content (ethanol) in fermented glutinous rice and fermented cassava. (The Malaysian Agricultural Research and Development Institute (MARDI) , 1983) Alcohol content (ethanol) % Day Fermented glutinous rice Fermented cassava 0 3.0 3.4 1 3.4 2.8 2 5.2 3.3 Based on the table 1, the ethanol content on the day 3 of the fermentation showed that the ethanol content in the fermented glutinous rice is 5.2% which is higher than the fermented cassava which is 3.3%. The alcohol content in fermented glutinous rice is similar to the alcohol content in beers which is 5%. Thus it had raised the halal issues to the Muslim community in Malaysia. Apart from that, consuming too much alcohol can lead to the bad consequences to the consumers especially for the acute chronic consumer. It is the main reason why we need to study the alcohol contents in fermented glutinous rice. The information about the content of alcohol can be such a contribution to the people and for the sake of Muslims all around the world. It also can make them more aware about what they had consumed. The ethanol content in fermented glutinous rice can increase when we continuing kept it for a longer time. At the certain time, the liquid produced can be categorized as alcohol as it can make us drunk if over consumed. As we know, when we consumed alcohol in a large amount, it can give a bad consequence effect to the consumer. Besides having pervasive psychosocial and economic consequences, alcohol is one of the main contributors to morbidity and mortality (Acharjee et al, 2015). All around the world, the number of deaths and substantial disability from medical and psychiatric consequences of alcohol misuse is increases day by day. Clearly in term of health, it is not good for us to consume alcohol in our life. Alcohol has an adverse impact on human. It has been proven in science, psychology and sociology. Acharjee et al (2015) also stated that large amount of alcohol has harmful effects on our health. For instance, alcohol can effects our cardiovascular such as hypertension, sudden cardiac death, stroke, cardiomyopathy and cardiac arrhythmias. In term of psychology, some crime and immorality in society happened due to the intake of alcohol. Often, drunks do not have a good attitude because when they get drunk, they were not aware of their behavior, which can cause discomfort to the community. This group also can apply chaos in a country because when alcohol addicts exist in a government or private sector, it can lead to abuse of power, property, embezzlement of state funds and breach of trust. 4.0 ANALYTICAL METHODS IN DETERMINATION OF ETHANOL A number of analytical methods have been employed with the aim of determination of alcohol. Commonly, there are combination of methods in order to achieved better result while analyze the sample. In western countries, various type of analytical method were developed to determine alcohol in alcoholic beverages. For example, Vonach et al (1998) had presented the coupling of high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) with Fourier –transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR). It can be used to determine the main component of wine such as glucose, fructose, citric, lactic, tartaric acid, glycerol, ethanol and so on. When it was about the sample preparation, it seems that the process was a little bit tedious because when using the internal standard, it need to be dissolved in distilled water and many more process need to carry out. The stationary phase and mobile phase that used in this study is ion-exchange resin based column and sulfuric acid. From the external reference data, an average deviation can be resulted which is 0.16mg/ml (Vonach et al, 1998). Yarita et al (2002) had proposed HPLC-FID to determine the ethanol content. Pure water had been chosen as a mobile phase in this study. When liquid water was introduced in FOD system, it changes into vapor. Due to limited flow rate of the HPLC eluent that introduced in FID system, capillary tube act as an alternative ways to control the flow rate of the HPLC eluent. Triacontylsylyl (C-30) silica gel is preferred because it show less decrease in the retention time compared with other. The ethanol concentration in the six sample can be detected around 10.2%-40.8% v/v at temperature 150C (Yarita et al, 2002). Gas chromatography also can be used as analytical tool to determine the alcohol in sample. Wang et al (2004) had proposed direct injection capillary gas chromatography that can be used to detect the methanol in beverages. Megapore capillary column with high polarity had been choosing to get the optimum condition for this study. It is because of it can used to separate the methanol in alcoholic beverages from the other components. At the stable baseline region, according to Wang et al (2004) when using acetonitrile as internal standard, it can perform clear separation from other constituents of sample. The samples studied were wine and whisky. Based on the obtained result, chromatogram give 3.06 min retention time for methanol while for the internal standard, it consumed about 4.21 min. Gas chromatography coupling with capillary column also has been proposed by Wang et al (2004). The aim was to determine both concentration of methanol and ethanol by using two internal standards which are acetonitrial for ethanol and 2- pentanol for methanol. Wang et al (2004) stated that for methanol, the retention time that revealed by this method was 2.87min while for ethanol, the retention time was 3.41 min. The analysis of both alcohol by using this method is 12 min. Apart from that, the limit of quantitation (LOQ) for methanol was 5 ÃŽ ¼g/mL and ethanol was 5 mg/mL (Wang, 2004). These methods are assumed to give contribution in order to determine the methanol content in industries due to high accuracy and precision. However, this method is time consuming and tedious. Vapour-phase FT-IR also can be used as analytical tool in determination of alcohol in beverages. In this experiment, there are aqueous solution of ethanol and methanol in the sample (Garrigues et al., 1997). The alcohol that contained in the sample had determined by using liquid-phase FTIR and vapour-phase FTIR. According to the Garrigues et al (1997), the result that obtained by the liquid-phase FTIR spectra, when pure water is used as a blank, there are a series of overlapping positive and negative peak (Garrigues et al., 1997). On the other hand, when discussing about FTIR spectra obtained by using vapour-phase FTIR after the injection of sample in heated plate, Garrigues et al (1997) stated that both ethanol and methanol provided a well-defined peak in the range of 1500 to 900 cm-1.The absorbance value for liquid-phase and vapour-phase are same but the spectrum for vapour-phase is clearer than spectrum for liquid-phase. Besides, the sensitivity and resolution of the alcohol band also high for vapour-phase FTIR (Garrigues et al., 1997). For the screening analysis of beverages, NIR can be used as a spectroscopic technique ( Barboza, 2003). The applications range was limited when using NIR because it has low sensitivity (Lanchemier, 2007). According to Chandley (1993), between NIR bitterness value and spectral data, the observation is it has a poor correlations and it needs the evaporation of water (dry extract spectroscopy) to make the determination of bitterness become possible. When mid-infrared combination with FTIR spectroscopy was used, it becomes such a development in the spectroscopic analysis compared with the using of NIR. Compared to the NIR, when using FTIR, we can get better result when analyzing the minor component such as lactic acid (Lanchenmier , 2007). Furhermore,it also can produce high resolution peak and the spectra also clearer when using FTIR ( Gallignani et al, 2003). Liquid Fourier transform-middle infrared spectrometry can be used to analyze wine in a 90 s (Patz et al., 2004). FTIR/PLS have b een developed for the multicomponent screening to analyze the alcohol in beverages (Neuwoudt et al, 2004).A lot of information can be obtained when using NMR rather than NIR and FTIR. According to Lanchenmier et al (2005), the distinct signals of the spectra can be produced if NMR was applied. In the calculation of cost-benefit for both NMR and FTIR, Lanchenmier (2007) also mentioned that in contrast with NMR, FTIR can give more advantage for screening method due to the less investment and operational costs. In this study, we want to determine the concentration of the ethanol in fermented glutinous rice with the use of FTIR and combination with Partial Least Square in the context of official food control. FTIR can give us advantages in order to determine and analyse the alcohol in alcoholic beverages because it can help us to reduce the time cost, and at the same time, it is also contribute for a good precision and accuracy when dealing with the parameters (Moreira et al., 2004). Fu rthermore, according to Lachenmeier (2007), a simple sample preparation is needed when dealing with FTIR spectroscopy compared to the other analytical methods. Problem Statement Recently the consumption of the fermented glutinous rice had rise the halal issue to the Muslim community since its alcohol content is similar to beer which is 5%. In order to determine the alcohol contained in the fermented glutinous rice, the government and private sector need the easiest, cheapest and low in cost analytical method for determination of alcohol. So we have come out with FTIR spectroscopy technique as this technique did not require the sample preparation like the other analytical method. Besides, it is not time consuming method and it has low cost compared to the other method. We also combine the FTIR with combination of Partial Least Square (PLS) in order to achieve better result. Objectives This study was conducted based on the objectives stated below: To develop method with the best accuracy To determine the lowest of detection limit To identified the ethanol contained in the sample

Different pricing objectives of company

Different pricing objectives of company Different pricing objectives of company Multi pricing objectives and strategies The task of the marketing manager is to decide the objectives of pricing before he determines the price itself. Pricing objectives provide guidance to decision makers in formulating price policies, planning pricing strategies and setting actual prices. The most important objective of the companies is to have maximum profits. Pricing objectives: Pricing objectives are goals that describe what a firm wants to achieve through pricing. Pricing objectives must be stated explicitly, and the statement should include the time frame for accomplishing them. There are six stages of setting prices. They are developing pricing objective, assessing the target markets evaluation of price, evaluating competitors prices, choosing a basis for pricing, selecting a pricing strategy, and determining a specific price. Cost-based pricing is adding a dollar amount or percentage to the cost of the product. Cost-plus pricing is adding a specified dollar amount or percentage to the sellers cost. Markup pricing is adding to the cost of the product a predetermined percentage of that cost. Demand-based pricing if pricing based on the level of demand for the product. Competition-based pricing is pricing influenced primarily by competitors prices. A pricing strategy is an approach of a course or action designed to achieve pricing and marketing objectives. Differential pricing is charging different prices to different buyers for the same quality and quantity of product. Negotiated pricing is establishing a final price through bargaining. Secondary-market pricing is setting one price for the primary target market and a different price for another market. Periodic discounting is temporary reduction of prices on a patterned or systematic basis. Random discounting is temporary reduction of prices on an unsystematic basis. Price skimming is charging the highest possible price that buyers who most desire the product will pay. Penetration pricing is setting prices below those of competing brands to penetrate a market and gain a significant market share quickly. Product-line pricing is establishing and adjusting prices of multiple products within a product line. Captive pricing is pricing the basic product in a product line low while pricing related items at a higher level. Premium pricing is pricing the highest-quality or most versatile products higher than other models in the product line. Bait pricing is pricing an item in the product line low with the intention of selling a higher-priced item in the line. Price lining is setting a limited number of prices for selected groups or lines of merchandise. Psychological pricing is pricing that attempts to influence a customers perception of price to make a products price more attractive. Reference pricing is pricing a product at a moderate level and positioning it next to a more expensive model or brand. Bundle pricing is packaging together two or more complementary products and selling them for a single price. Multiple-unit pricing is packaging together two or more identical products and selling them for a single price. Everyday low prices is setting a low price for products on a consistent basis. Odd-even pricing is ending the price with certain numbers to influence buyers perceptions of the price or product. Customary pricing if pricing on the basis of tradition. Prestige pricing is setting prices at an artificially high level to convey prestige or a quality image. Professional pricing are fees set by people with great skill or experience in a particular field. Price leaders are products priced below the usual mark up, near cost, or below cost. Special-event pricing is advertised sales or price cutting linked to a holiday, season, or event. Comparison discounting is setting a price at a specific level and comparing it with a higher price. It is necessary that the marketing manager decide the objective of pricing before actually setting price. According to experts, pricing objectives are the overall goals that describe the role of price in an organizations long-range plans. The objectives help the marketing manager as guidelines to develop marketing strategies. The following are the important pricing objectives. Market penetration Market skimming Target rate of return Price stabilization Meet of follow competition Market share Profits maximization Cash flow Product line promotion Survival Market penetration objective: In the initial stages of entering the market, the entrepreneurs may set a relatively low price. this is mainly to secure a large share of the market. in a highly price sensitive market, the businessman may continue to sell his products even without profit. he is interested in growth rather than in making a profit. in the market penetration objective, the unit cost of production and distribution will decrease when the volume of sales attain a particular target. in brief, market penetration objective is an attempt to secure a large share of the market by deliberately setting the low prices. Penetration pricingpursues the objective of quantity maximization by means of a low price. It is most appropriate when Demand is expected to be highly elastic; that is, customers are price sensitive and the quantity demanded will increase significantly as price declines. Large decreases in cost are expected as cumulative volume increases. The product is of the nature of something that can gain mass appeal fairly quickly. There is a threat of impending competition. As theproduct lifecycleprogresses, there likely will be changes in the demand curve and costs. As such, the pricing policy should be re-evaluated over time. The pricing objective depends on many factors including production cost, existence of economies of scale, barriers to entry, product differentiation, rate of product diffusion, the firms resources, and the products anticipatedprice elasticity of demand . Market skimming objective: Market skimming means utilizing the opportunities in the market to reap the benefits of high sales, increased profits and low unit costs. Some of the entrepreneurs study the buyers needs and try to provide the suitable goods, but charge them high prices. This objective is realized in those markets where the magnitude of competition is very low. The entrepreneurs, in this situation, make profits over a short period. The market-skimming objective would not be meaningful, when the consumer refuses to purchase the goods at the prices fixed by the producers. This pricing objective would be suitable in the markets where the consumers feel that costly goods are of the superior quality. Skimming is most appropriate when: Demand is expected to be relatively inelastic; that is, the customers are not highly price sensitive. Large cost savings are not expected at high volumes, or it is difficult to predict the cost savings that would be achieved at high volume. The company does not have the resources to finance the large capital expenditures necessary for high volume production with initially low profit margins. Target rate of return objective: Rate of return is normally measured in relation to investment and sales. The producers enjoying some protection may prefer to earn a target rate on investment. This would be possible where the entrepreneur enjoys a franchise or a monopolistic situation. But in the long run, every businessman attempts to secure an adequate return on investment through price setting. Mostly, middleman like wholesalers, retailers will price their merchandise to earn a particular rate of return on sales. Price stabilization objectives: Frequent changes in the prices of product will harm the long-term interests of the companies. Hence, they aim at stabilization of prices. They do not exploit a short supply position to earn the maximum. During the periods of good business, they try to keep prices from rising and during the periods of depression, they keep prices from falling too low. Thus, they take a long-term view in achieving price stability. Meet or follow competition objective: Pricing is often done to meet or even prevent competition. If a company is a price leader, it is better to follow it to ward off the possibility of competition. Market share objective: A company may either have the objective of maintaining the present market share or increase its share depending upon its stature. Particularly, big business houses adopt such pricing that it enables them to retain their market share. If they raise their market share, they may draw the attention of the government and if they shed their share, they may lose revenues. Contrary to this, small business houses are found interested in raising their share in the market so as to reap the benefit of large-scale production. In few cases, firms may sell the products even at a lower cost to capture the market. However, such practice may lead to financial crisis. As a matter of fact, this is an objective to be adopted by new firms cautiously. Profit maximization objective: Profit maximization does not mean profiteering. There is nothing wrong in this policy if practiced over the long run. As a matter of fact, many of the enterprises strive to maximize their profits. Maximization of profits should be on the total output and not on a single item. In such case, consumers do not get dissatisfied since a particular group is not called for paying a high price. While adopting this pricing objective, the marketers should attempt to project their image in the market through sales promotion techniques. The marketers should watch the reactions of the consumers. Profit maximization through price hikes should be sparingly used. Cash flow objective: One of the important objectives of pricing is to recover invested funds within a stipulated period. Most of the time you will find different prices for the cash and credit transactions. Generally, you find lower prices for the cash sales and high prices for the credit sales. But this pricing objective could be implemented with good results only when the firm has monopoly in the market. Product line promotion objective: Product line means a group of products that are related either because they satisfy similar needs of different market segments or because they satisfy different but related needs of a given market segment. While framing the product line, the marketer may also include such goods, which are not popular. The intention of the marketer is to push through all the goods without any discrimination. Thus, the ultimate objective is to increase the overall demand of the goods. In this pricing objective, equal prices are adopted for the entire product line. Survival objective: Perpetual existence of the business over a period is the indication of the sound financial position of the enterprise. All organizations will have to meet expected and unexpected, initial and external economic losses. These enterprises have to pool up the resources to meet all the contingencies through appropriate pricing strategies. Price is use to increase sale volume to level up the ups and downs that come to the organization. Profit Oriented: Target Return sometimes the vendor specifies a specific dollar amount or percentage amount that the price will be offered at in order to make a profit which has been calculated for a specific purpose. Usually this amount is part of a larger plan involving several product units in a product line Profit Oriented: Maximize Profits if the Competitive Market is not intense you may charge the highest price the market will bear because sometimes you may have an advantage for reasons based on your geographic advantage special features not available on other competitors products very very famous brand. etc.. Sales / Marketing Oriented: Increase Sales Volume Sales / Marketing Oriented: Increase Market Share Status Quo Goals: Just Meet the Competition if the customer has many choices, and you barely have the resources to stay in the market, then just charge the same price. You dont have the resources to survive a price war, and you dont have the ability to claim better quality to charge a higher price Prof. Allen says Volume objectives include sales maximization and market-share goals, which are specified as a percentage of certain markets. In sales maximization, management sets an acceptable level of profitability and then tries to maximize sales. This objective can lead to discounting or some other aggressive pricing strategy, such as rebates and sales. Skim the cream† pricing involves selling at a high price to those who are willing to pay before aiming at more price-sensitive consumers. This expression comes from the farming practice of milking cows the cream rises to the top and you skim it off. Skimming Pricing A Skimming policy is more attractive if demand is inelastic says the Shapiro text remember inelastic means there are no close substitutes products that people will pay a high price for because there is nothing else they can buy the is close to the item Prof. Allen says A skimming pricing policy involves setting prices of products relatively high compared to those of similar products and then gradually lowering prices. The skimming price is the highest price possible that buyers who most desire the product will pay (skim the cream off the top skim the innovators). This market segment is more interested in quality, status, uniqueness, etc. This policy is effective in situations where a firm has a substantial lead over competition with a new product. Example: A great example of Skimming is DVD players in the late 1990s and early 2000s in the late 1990s DVD players sold for $500 and $400 when they first came out, then the price dropped to less than $100 by 2001 by 2004 you can get them for $50 or $60 at many different types of stores. Penetration Pricing to make it too intimidating for competition to follow, or to make sure you enter the market in a competitive environment or as part of a brand building strategy Prof. Allen says A penetration pricing policy involves setting prices of products relatively low compared to those of similar products in the hope that they will secure wide market acceptance that will allow the company to later raise its prices. Such a policy is often used when the firm expects competition from similar products within a short time and when large-scale production and marketing will produce substantial reductions in overall costs. The low price must help keep out the competition, and the company must maintain its low price position. Discount Pricing can be seasonal can be based on volume or amount bought can be used to attract a form of payment e.g, CA$H Prof. Allen says Discount and allowance pricing has the effect of reducing prices to reward customer responses such as paying early or promoting the product. A recent pricing issue is that of everyday low pricing, where the retailer charges a constant, lower price at all times, with no temporary price discounts. Wal-Mart has led the trend toward everyday low pricing. Geographic Pricing F.O.B. basically, this is the price out the door at our factory you come and get it C.I.F. the cost at our factory + the insurance and freight to ship it to you ZONE if you live close, it is cheaper, if you live farther away, we add in shipping costs ZONE pricing used for everything from Pizza delivery to clothing to grain shipments Basing-point pricing means that all customers are charged freight from a specified billing location. Freight-absorption pricing, the seller pays all shipping costs to get the desired business. Prof. Allen says Price is influenced by geography, where the company decides on how to price to distant customers. Free On Board or FOB-origin pricing is a geographical pricing strategy in which goods are placed free on board a carrier; the customer pays the actual freight from the factory to the destination. Because the customer picks up its own cost, supporters believe that this method is the fairest way to assess freight charges. Some of the more pricing objectives are Maximize long run profit Maximize short run profit Increase sales volume Increase monetary sale Increase market share Obtain a target rate of return on investment Obtain a target rate of return on sale stabilize market or stabilize market price: an objective to stabilize price means that the marketing manager attempts to keep prices stable in the marketplace and to compete on non-price considerations. Stabilization of margin is basically a cost-plus approach in which the manager attempts to maintain the same margin regardless of changes in cost. company growth maintain price of leadership desensitize customers to price discourage new entrants into the industry match competitors prices encourage the exit of marginal firms from the industry survival avoid government investigation or intervention obtain or maintain the loyalty and enthusiasm of distributers and other sales personnel enhance the image of the firm, brand, and product be perceived as â€Å"fair† by customers and a potential customers create interest and excitement about a product discourage competitors from cutting prices use price to make the product â€Å"visible build store traffic help prepare for the sale of the business (harvesting) social, ethical, or ideological objectives get competitive advantage MARKETING MIX Themarketing mixis probably the most famous marketing term. Its elements are the basic, tactical components of a marketing plan. Also known as theFour Ps, the marketing mixelements areproduct, price, promotion, place. 4 PS OF MARKETING MIX PRODUCT A tangible object or an intangible service that ismass producedor manufactured on a large scale with a specific volume of units. Intangible products are often service based like thetourism industry thehotel industryor codes-based products like cellphone load and credits. Typical examples of a mass produced tangible object are themotor carand the disposablerazor. A less obvious but ubiquitous mass produced service is acomputer operating system. Company should produce product according to customers needs and want because the motive of pricing pricing objective is profit maximisation. PRICE The price is the amount a customer pays for the product. It is determined by a number of factors including market share, competition, material costs, product identity and the customers perceived value of the product. The business may increase or decrease the price of product if other stores have the same product. Company should set their price according to customers budget to earn more profit. One of the four major elements of the marketing mix is price. Pricing is an important strategic issue because it is related to product positioning. Furthermore, pricing affects other marketing mix elements such as product features, channel decisions, and promotion. PLACE THE Place represents the location where a distribution channel. It can include any physical store as well as virtual stores on the Internet. Companies set their price according to place if target place is rural and backward then they should reduse their prices and if the target place is modern urban then the company charge more price according to its brand image and get more profit. PROMOTION Represents all of the communications that a marketer may use in the marketplace. Promotion has four distinct elements -advertising,public relations,word of mouthandpoint of sale. A certain amount of crossover occurs when promotion uses the four principal elements together, which is common in film promotion. Advertising covers any communication that is paid for, from cinema commercials, radio and Internet adverts through print media and billboards. Public relations are where the communication is not directly paid for and includes press releases, sponsorship deals, exhibitions, conferences, seminars or trade fairs and events. Word of mouth is any apparently informal communication about the product by ordinary individuals, satisfied customers or people specifically engaged to create word of mouth momentum. Sales staff often plays an important role in word of mouth and Public Relations. Packaging also needs to be taken into consideration. Broadly defined, optimizing the marketing mix is the primary responsibility of marketing. By offering the product with the right combination of the four Ps marketers can improve their results and marketing effectiveness. Making small changes in the marketing mix is typically considered to be a tactical change.Parm Bains says Making large changes in any of the four Ps can be considered strategic. For example, a large change in the price, say from $19.00 to $39.00 would be considered a strategic change in the position of the product. However a change of $130 to $129.99 would be considered a tactical change, potentially related to a promotional offer. The term marketing mix however, does not imply that the 4P elements represent options. They are not trade-offs but are fundamental marketing issues that always need to be addressed. They are the fundamental actions that marketing requires whether determined explicitly or by default. The main objective is profit maximisation so company promote its brand and invest more money and get maximum profit. INFLUENCE THE MARKETING MIX Before the product is developed, the marketing strategy is formulated, including target market selection and product positioning. There usually is a tradeoff between product quality and price, so price is an important variable in positioning. Because of inherent tradeoffs betweenmarketing mixelements, pricing will depend on other product, distribution, and promotion decisions. ESTIMATE THE DEMAND CURVE Because there is a relationship between price and quantity demanded, it is important to understand the impact of pricing on sales by estimating thedemand curvefor the product. For existing products, experiments can be performed at prices above and below the current price in order to determine theprice elasticity of demand. Inelastic demand indicates that price increases might be feasible. CALCULATE THE COST If the firm has decided to launch the product, there likely is at least a basic understanding of the costs involved, otherwise, there might be no profit to be made. The unit cost of the product sets the lower limit of what the firm might charge, and determines the profit margin at higher prices. The total unit cost of a producing a product is composed of the variable cost of producing each additional unit and fixed costs that are incurred regardless of the quantity produced. The pricing policy should consider both types of costs. MARKET ENVIRONMENT Themarket environmentis amarketingterm and refers to all of the forces outside of marketing that affect marketing managements ability to build and maintain successful relationships with target customers. Themarket environmentconsists of both the macro environment and the microenvironment Micro environment The microenvironment refers to the forces that are close to the company and affect its ability to serve its customers. It includes the company itself, its suppliers, marketing intermediaries, customer markets,competitors, and publics. The company aspect of microenvironment refers to the internal environment of the company. This includes alldepartments, such as management,finance,research and development,purchasing,operations andaccounting. Each of these departments has an impact on marketing decisions. For example, research and development have input as to the features a product can perform and accounting approves the financial side of marketing plans and budgets. Thesuppliersof a company are also an important aspect of the microenvironment because even the slightest delay in receiving supplies can result in customer dissatisfaction. Marketing managers must watch supply availability and other trends dealing with suppliers to ensure that product will be delivered to customers in the time frame required in order to maintain a strong customer relationship. Marketing intermediaries refers to resellers, physical distribution firms, marketing services agencies, andfinancial intermediaries. These are the people that help the company promote, sell, and distribute its products to final buyers. Resellers are those that hold and sell the companys product. They match the distribution to the customers and include places such asWal-Mart, Target, andBest Buy. Physical distribution firms are places such as warehouses that store and transport the companys product from its origin to its destination. Marketing services agencies are companies that offer services such as conductingmarketing research, advertising, and consulting. Financial intermediaries are institutions such as banks, credit companies andinsurance companies. Another aspect of microenvironment is the customers. There are different types of customer markets including consumer markets, business markets, government markets,international markets, and reseller markets. The consumer market is made up of individuals who buygoods and servicesfor their own personal use or use in their household. Business markets include those that buy goods and services for use in producing their own products to sell. This is different from the reseller market which includes businesses that purchase goods to resell as is for a profit. These are the same companies mentioned as market intermediaries. The government market consists of government agencies that buy goods to producepublic servicesor transfer goods to others who need them. International markets include buyers in other countries and includes customers from the previous categories. Competitors are also a factor in the microenvironment and include companies with similar offerings for goods and services. To remain competitive a company must consider who their biggest competitors are while considering its own size and position in the industry. The company should develop a strategic advantage over their competitors. The final aspect of the microenvironment is publics, which is any group that has an interest in or impact on the organizations ability to meet its goals. For example, financial publics can hinder a companys ability to obtain funds affecting the level of credit a company has. Media publics include newspapers and magazines that can publish articles of interest regarding the company and editorials that may influence customers opinions. Government publics can affect the company by passing legislation and laws that put restrictions on the companys actions. Citizen-action publics include environmental groups andminority groupsand can question the actions of a company and put them in the public spotlight. Local publics are neighborhood and community organizations and will also question a companys impact on the local area and the level of responsibility of their actions. The general public can greatly affect the company as any change in their attitude, whether positive or negative, can cause sales to go up or down because the general public is often the companyscustomer base. And finally, the internal publics include all those who are employed within the company and deal with the organization and construction of the companys product. Macro environment The macro environment refers to all forces that are part of the larger society and affect the microenvironment. It includes concepts such as demography, economy, natural forces, technology, politics, and culture. Demographyrefers to studying human populations in terms of size, density, location, age, gender, race, and occupation. This is a very important factor to study for marketers and helps to divide the population intomarket segmentsandtarget markets. An example of demography is classifying groups of people according to the year they were born. These classifications can be referred to asbaby boomers, who are born between 1946 and 1964,generation X, who are born between 1965 and 1976, andgeneration Y, who are born between 1977 and 1994. Each classification has different characteristics and causes they find important. This can be beneficial to a marketer as they can decide who their product would benefit most and tailor theirmarketing planto attract that segment. Demography covers many aspects that are important to marketers including family dynamics, geographic shifts, work force changes, and levels of diversity in any given area. Another aspect of the macro environment is the economic environment. This refers to thepurchasing powerof potential customers and the ways in which people spend their money. Within this area are two different economies, subsistence and industrialized. Subsistence economies are based more in agriculture and consume their own industrial output. Industrial economies have markets that are diverse and carry many different types of goods. Each is important to the marketer because each has a highly different spending pattern as well as differentdistribution of wealth. The natural environment is another important factor of the macro environment. This includes the natural resources that a company uses as inputs and affects their marketing activities. The concern in this area is the increased pollution, shortages of raw materials and increased governmental intervention. As raw materials become increasingly scarcer, the ability to create a companys product gets much harder. Also, pollution can go as far as negatively affecting a companys reputation if they are known for damaging the environment. The last concern,government interventioncan make it increasingly harder for a company to fulfill their goals as requirements get more stringent. The technological environment is perhaps one of the fastest changing factors in the macroenvironment. This includes all developments from antibiotics and surgery tonuclear missilesandchemical weaponsto automobiles andcredit cards. As these markets develop it can create new markets and new uses for products. It also requires a company to stay ahead of others and update their own technology as it becomes outdated. They must stay informed of trends so they can be part ofthe next big thing, rather

What Does The Placebo Effect Say About The Mind-body Dilemma? :: Biology Essays Research Papers

What Does The Placebo Effect Say About The Mind-body Dilemma? When I was seven years old my family and I took my grandmother on a trip around northern India. It was her desire to make pilgrimages to the temples that were considered to be the holiest by the Swaminaryans, an orthodox sect of Hindus. At that time in my life, I couldn't even pretend to be interested in the activities occurring within the temples. Instead, I was mesmerized by my proximity to the wildlife that was lounging just outside of the actual walls of temples. In a two-week span of time I must have seen more than twenty temples, and by the end they all blurred together except for one. Although the temple itself was not magnificent, what was occurring inside has remained with me to this day. A male priest, who was sitting at the main alter, was pulling on elderly woman's hair causing her to scream hysterically. I discovered that the woman was suffering from a headache and was having it cured by the priest. More accurately, she was having the "ghosts" removed from her brain. For the individuals who were directly involved in the ceremony and for many of the people with whom I was traveling, exorcism was a perfectly legitimate way of curing an illness of the body. The cure had no pharmaceutical basis, but it was based in the people's belief system. The belief system for the circumstance that I witnessed was a ritualistic aspect of Hinduism. In the case of the exorcism, the individuals involved expected that the treatment would work, and as a result the treatment did work. The idea that people benefit from expectation alone is called the placebo effect, and it is not u nique to India or to the east. Placebos are medications or treatments that are benign and have no pharmacological properties 1)The Placebo Effect Real of Imagined. The category of placebo includes everything from the hair pulling I witnessed in India to the starch pills that millions of American women take along with their birth control. Until recently, placebos were considered important to Western medicine, in so far as they were part of a rigorous scientific method of testing and approving new medicine. In particular, a standard part of clinical trials is the division of patients into two categories. One category is given the medication being tested and the other is given placebo pills.

The Pugilist at Rest :: essays research papers

Judging from the other reviews, the awards, and multiple accolades Thom Jones's writings, and "The Pugilist at Rest" in particular, have received, I am apparently in quite the minority. But here goes: I found an inherent falseness and overwritten emotion throughout the stories. Jones too often tells the reader what he/she should be feeling instead of letting the reader respond sans prescription. Case in point: "I Want to Live!" The son-in-law is the "good guy" (obviously the author -- tacky) who gives the dying woman Schopenhauer to read and narcotic medication to ease the unbearable pain no one else will even acknowledge. This revitalizes the woman in the extreme (I believe she thanks God for her son-in-law at some point, which struck me as the author thanking God for the character of himself as he portrayed himself in the story -- again, ooh, tacky). Obviously, Jones digs Schopenhauer and through the character of the woman tells us that philosophy from just the right guy will turn it all around for us as we are dying an excruciating death. Please. This situation probably "actually happened" just this way in Jones's life, but it doesn't mean the recounting of it reveals the truth. I also found technical medical error in the description of the effect of certain drugs on the woman's pain. I have to paraphrase re: the effect of methadone, something like "circles of orange orgasms blossoming through her body." Methadone has a long half-life; taken orally, as in the story, it would take a long time to take effect. Methadone works as a slow build toward pain relief -- good relief, but hardly orgasmic -- as opposed to an injection of morphine, for which an orgasmic description would have been appropriate.

Animal Farm, by George Orwell :: Animal Farm Essays

The Novel Animal Farm, was written by George Orwell. This story takes place on a farm where the animals revolt against the human owner of the land and take control of the farm. During the reign of the animals, many conflicts occur over who holds the most power and who should be making all of the decisions on be-half of the rest of the animals. Eventually Napolean gains power over Snowball. This causes many problems on the farm because Napolean uses much of the money to entertain himself and does not take necessary action to help the rest of the animals. The author chose to name the book "Animal Farm" because in a literal term, the animals own and run the farm. This is clearly shown in the book when we see the animals force the human owner off the farm and they begin to run everything that happens. This novel belongs to the modern period of British Literature. During this time period, a significant resemblance can be seen between the context of the novel and communism. The two pigs, Napolean and Snowball, represent the leaders of communism, Stalin and Trotsky. While they hold the power, they both have differing views and attempt to gain a superior power over the other. When Napolean gains total control, it represents what communism turned out to be. This involved one leader controlling the entire body of people and forcing his ways on everyone else. The author’s point of view is that communism is something that should have never come into existence. He believes that all the power should not belong to one person because that single person will take advantage of their power and use it to their advantage. The effect of this is that it gives the reader the idea that nothing good can come of communism. This makes everyone who reads the novel believe what he believes. This can be a reliable source because what is written in context truly represents history. Orwell describes his characters indirectly. This is because of the resemblance to the history of communism. Some of the characters were meant to represent an actual human being that once lived, so the description of that character can be taken from the character traits of the actual person that they represent. Animal Farm, by George Orwell :: Animal Farm Essays The Novel Animal Farm, was written by George Orwell. This story takes place on a farm where the animals revolt against the human owner of the land and take control of the farm. During the reign of the animals, many conflicts occur over who holds the most power and who should be making all of the decisions on be-half of the rest of the animals. Eventually Napolean gains power over Snowball. This causes many problems on the farm because Napolean uses much of the money to entertain himself and does not take necessary action to help the rest of the animals. The author chose to name the book "Animal Farm" because in a literal term, the animals own and run the farm. This is clearly shown in the book when we see the animals force the human owner off the farm and they begin to run everything that happens. This novel belongs to the modern period of British Literature. During this time period, a significant resemblance can be seen between the context of the novel and communism. The two pigs, Napolean and Snowball, represent the leaders of communism, Stalin and Trotsky. While they hold the power, they both have differing views and attempt to gain a superior power over the other. When Napolean gains total control, it represents what communism turned out to be. This involved one leader controlling the entire body of people and forcing his ways on everyone else. The author’s point of view is that communism is something that should have never come into existence. He believes that all the power should not belong to one person because that single person will take advantage of their power and use it to their advantage. The effect of this is that it gives the reader the idea that nothing good can come of communism. This makes everyone who reads the novel believe what he believes. This can be a reliable source because what is written in context truly represents history. Orwell describes his characters indirectly. This is because of the resemblance to the history of communism. Some of the characters were meant to represent an actual human being that once lived, so the description of that character can be taken from the character traits of the actual person that they represent.